Kokand is an Ancient City of Artisans: A Hub of the Great Silk Road and the Cradle of Central Asian Culture
Kokand, located in the western part of the fertile Fergana Valley, is one of the oldest cities along the legendary Great Silk Road. Its origins stretch far back into history, and the city played a central role in transcontinental trade and cultural exchange.
The first written mention of Kokand, then known as Khukand or Khavokand, can be found in records from the 10th century. The city was an important trade center on the Great Silk Road, a network of trade routes that connected Asia with Europe. Like many other cities in Central Asia, Kokand was destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century but regained significance in the 18th century when it became the capital of the Kokand Khanate, one of the most powerful and prosperous states in the region.
The Rise of the Kokand Khanate
In the 18th century, the ancestor of the Kokand Khan dynasty founded the fortress of Eski-Kurgan near the present-day city in 1732. This marked the beginning of Kokand’s revival. Originally a small and isolated domain, the khanate grew into a powerful state throughout the 19th century, encompassing large parts of present-day Uzbekistan, as well as parts of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and China. It developed into a significant center of trade and religion in the region.
The wealth and power of Kokand were reflected in the magnificent architecture that remains in the form of mosques, madrasas, and other structures. The city was also a center of science and education. By the 19th century, Kokand had more than 660 mosques, 67 madrasas, and countless bazaars and caravanserais facilitating vibrant trade.
Palace of Khudoyar Khan: A Symbol of Oriental Splendor
One of the city’s most outstanding buildings is the Palace of Khudoyar Khan, constructed in 1871. Also known as “Kokand Urda,” this palace is a splendid example of the architecture of the time and symbolizes the power and wealth of the Kokand Khanate. Under the guidance of architect Mir Ubaidullo, and with the help of the region’s best artisans, an impressive palace was built.
Originally covering 4 hectares, the palace had seven courtyards and various buildings. The main entrance was guarded by cannons, and an Arabic inscription above the doors declared the ruler’s name. Of the 119 rooms originally decorated with intricate ornaments and carvings, only 19 remain today. However, the palace remains a testament to the former grandeur of the Kokand Khanate. Many artifacts, including the jewel-encrusted throne of Khudoyar Khan, are now housed in international museums, such as the Hermitage in St. Petersburg.
Dakhma-i-Shakhon: The Mausoleum of the Kokand Rulers
Another important architectural ensemble is the Dakhma-i-Shakhon Mausoleum, the family tomb of the Kokand rulers. This impressive monument was built in 1825 at the initiative of the poet and ruler Mohlaroyim Nodira, the widow of Umar Khan. After her husband’s death, Nodira ruled the khanate wisely and justly. Under her leadership, the mausoleum became an important religious and cultural center.
The ensemble consists of a domed room with a portal, a mosque, and a family cemetery where numerous Kokand rulers are buried. The elaborate wood carvings and masterful ganch (stucco) work make this mausoleum an architectural masterpiece.
Kokand, once a center of power, trade, and culture, is today a city whose rich history and impressive buildings remind us of the glorious past of the khanate. The city remains an important site of cultural heritage, testifying to the historical significance of the Great Silk Road and Central Asian civilizations.
The Mausoleum of Dakhma-i-Shakhon: Architecture and Ornamentation
The Dakhma-i-Shakhon Mausoleum is a low structure whose facade is distinguished by its refined design. The decoration includes both ornamental elements and intricately carved wooden panels. On these elements are Quranic verses in Arabic script, as well as poetic lines from the ruler Umar Khan. The entrance portal is adorned with mosaic patterns made from glazed tiles, creating a harmonious color composition of blue and turquoise tones. The upper part of the portal is decorated with frames and compositional patterns inspired by traditional fabric designs from the Fergana Valley.
Over time, a variety of mazars (burial sites) developed around the mausoleum, creating a distinct cemetery. In 1971, local artisans restored the mausoleum to preserve this important historical heritage.
Modari Khan Mausoleum: An Example of Central Asian Burial Art
The Modari Khan Mausoleum, another remarkable structure from this period, is characterized by a central turquoise dome. Built in 1825, it serves exclusively as the burial site for the mother of Kokand ruler Umar Khan, with the name “Modari Khan” derived from the Tajik word for “mother.” The construction of the mausoleum is closely tied to the poetess Nodira, who played a key role in promoting architecture in Kokand.
The Modari Khan Mausoleum represents a small portal-domed tomb flanked by small faceted minarets, located behind a cemetery. The facade of the tiled portal uses, in addition to the traditional white and blue colors, yellow-red and green patterns, deviating from other examples of Kokand architecture. The decorative design emphasizes intricate embellishments, making the tombs less architectural masterpieces and more artworks of folk craftsmen.
Near the mausoleum is a white marble and bronze monument erected in honor of Nodira. Her fate was tragic: On the orders of the Emir of Bukhara, Nasrullah, she was executed after a long internal conflict as he took control of Kokand. Nodira’s remains were also interred in the Modari Khan Mausoleum, which later became the burial site for all the Khan’s women. On Nodira’s initiative, numerous splendid structures were erected in Kokand, including the Chalpak Madrasa.
Jami Mosque: A Testament to Islamic Architecture
Kokand’s role as a Muslim center is reflected in the numerous religious buildings that have been preserved, among which the Jami Mosque on Chorsu Square stands out. Historical chronicles mention a cathedral mosque on this site, which existed from the 9th to the 12th centuries but was destroyed during the Mongol conquests in the 13th century. The construction of the new cathedral mosque began in 1805 under Kokand ruler Olim Khan, but it was initially left incomplete. His brother, Umar Khan, resumed the work in 1814, commissioning a renowned architect from Ura-Tyube to oversee the project. With the support of at least 200 builders, the Jami Mosque was completed within two years, and its beauty became widely known.
The Jami Mosque impresses with its intricately painted columns in the aivan and richly decorated khanaka vaults. The slender, 22.5-meter-high minaret with its faceted dome is a defining feature of the mosque. In addition to serving as a lookout point, the minaret was also a place for symbolic punishment of criminals and unfaithful wives. The mosque also housed hujras (study cells) and classrooms, as it included a madrasa that operated until 1918. The complex was restored in 1905 and is still used for Friday prayers by the city’s residents.
Gishtlik Mosque: A Masterpiece of Brick Architecture
The Gishtlik Mosque, also known as the Brick Mosque, was built at the beginning of the 20th century by local craftsmen for the members of their neighborhood (guzar). The symmetrically designed building, made of fired bricks, includes a hall and an aivan, both measuring 7.8 x 18.4 meters. Mihrab niches, in the form of pointed arch niches, are integrated into the symmetry axis of the western walls.
The entrance portal, called Darvozakhona, forms a harmonious ensemble with the other buildings through its architecture and ornamentation. It has three pointed arched entrances and a towering rectangular middle section. The portal’s decoration features a large geometric mosaic pattern, complemented by plant motifs on the lancet niches. The U-shaped mosaic decoration of the portal, with its zigzag lines, is reminiscent of the traditional Khan-atlas fabric from Fergana, which was used for outerwear.
Gishtlik Mosque: Construction and Decorative Elements
The Gishtlik Mosque stands out for its remarkable architectural sophistication. The flat ceiling of the building is supported by twelve wooden faceted columns arranged in two rows. The beamed ceiling consists of half-cylindrical rods, known as vassa, laid with the convex side down. This arrangement gives the ceiling a remarkable plastic depth. The architectural structures are strongly influenced by Russian construction techniques; a system of wooden rafters with a suspended ceiling was used, making the traditional intermediate supports unnecessary. The decorative design of the mosque is of great value: the ceiling panels are decorated with detailed ornaments depicting plant motifs, with red and green as the dominant colors.
After a comprehensive restoration, the building was initially used as a library and now functions as an active mosque. The simple floor plan and original decoration make the Gishtlik Mosque a standout example of Kokand architecture.
Norbuta-Biya Madrasa: A Masterpiece of Kokand’s Architecture
The Norbuta-Biya Madrasa stands as an outstanding example of 18th-century architectural mastery in Kokand. Built near the Jami Mosque, it was the largest religious center in the city. Its design and layout are heavily influenced by the typical structures of Bukhara from the 18th and 19th centuries. The monumental single-story building is characterized by a double central arch and sturdy Guldasta towers with faceted cylindrical tops. The 70-meter-long brick facade is accentuated by a prominent front portal (Peshtak) facing north.
The madrasa’s interior consists of an enclosed space surrounding a courtyard, housing 24 hujras (cells for students). To the right of the entrance lies the Darskhona, the main lecture hall, while on the left is a domed mosque for prayers. At the center of the courtyard stands an Iwan, used for classes during the warmer seasons. The madrasa continues to serve its educational purpose today, hosting over 80 students.
Emir Madrasa: Elegance and Functionality
The Emir Madrasa, built in the 18th century, is a significant historical monument of Kokand. It features a strict yet elegant architectural style. The building’s 30-meter-long and 21-meter-wide facade is adorned with geometric and floral ornaments made of multicolored majolica. The courtyard of the madrasa houses hujras (student cells), while a mosque is located on the left side of the courtyard, and a Darskhona (study room) on the right. Both buildings are topped with graceful blue domes.
The mosque remains active and is open to both worshippers and tourists.
Kamol Kazi Madrasa: A Traditional Educational Institution
The Kamol Kazi Madrasa, located west of the Jami Mosque, was built in the first half of the 19th century (1830-1832) under the aegis of Uzbek ruler Muhammad Ali Khan (Madali-khan) by the Kokand Qazi Kamol. The brick building, like other traditional structures, features a decorative portal.
In the 19th century, the Kamol Kazi Madrasa served as a Muslim college for the children of local nobility. The institution comprised a Darskhona (study room), hujras (living quarters), and a four-columned Aiwan mosque with an eastern entrance. Noteworthy is the intricately decorated entrance portal, embellished with cylindrical side towers and adorned with geometric patterns, Arabic inscriptions, and cupola lanterns. The interior of the madrasa is adorned with carvings and hand-painted images. This architectural monument has been included in the “National List of Uzbekistan’s Material Heritage.”
Sohibzoda Hazrat Madrasa: A Cultural Center of the Fergana Valley
The Sohibzoda Hazrat Madrasa, also known as Miyon Hazrat or Miyon Ahad, is an important site in the Fergana Valley. It was constructed between 1827 and 1860 at the request of the prominent scholar and statesman Miyon Fazli Ahad, who was revered as Sahibzoda Hazrat. Miyon Fazli Ahad moved to Kokand from Peshawar in 1825, invited by ruler Modali Khan, who revered him as a spiritual teacher.
The architect of the building is unknown, but master Iskander Khoja is mentioned for creating the splendid carved gates. The madrasa was built on a piece of wasteland in the old Mahalla (residential district), resulting in its unusual layout with three courtyards. This structure allows for functional use: each courtyard is intended for a different level of education: primary (Adno), secondary (Avsat), and higher (A’lo).
Architectural Features and Usage of the Madrasa
The madrasa’s architecture is entirely based on fired bricks, with plastered interiors. The main dome is positioned on the west side of the southern courtyard, accessed through a distinctive domed gate. The southern courtyard measures 32 by 36 meters and includes a mosque with an integrated minaret. The cells near the gate currently house the hujra of the poet Muhammad Aminhoja Mukimi.
The eastern courtyard spans 35 by 20 meters, and the western courtyard covers 23 by 11 meters. Both courtyards are surrounded by cells and classrooms, known as Darskhona. In total, the madrasa originally had 24 cells, one of which belonged to the poet Mukhi Kokandi.
Almost all cells and rooms have been restored and renovated. Previously, part of the building was used by the Shahi Atlas weaving company; now, the entire premises have been converted into a museum.
The eminent poet Aminhudja Mukimi found refuge in this madrasa, where he taught and lived for many years. The museum’s exhibition is divided into three main sections: the Mukimi hujra, a collection of Mukimi’s works, and a presentation of literary poetry from Kokand in the second half of the 19th century, providing comprehensive insights into his life and creations.
Hamza House Museum
The Hamza Hakimzade Niyazi Museum, opened in 1959 in his birthplace, is a major landmark in Kokand. The poet, known as a talented writer, playwright, musician, and representative of the people’s will, earned widespread recognition.
The museum includes a well-kept courtyard with a centuries-old mulberry tree and a grapevine, as well as a house divided into male and female quarters. The exhibition offers insights into the life and daily activities of an Uzbek family. Visitors can see the room of Hamza’s father, a respected city healer-tabib, and Hamza’s study, furnished with his piano, Uzbek musical instruments, books, and journals. The rooms of the poet’s mother and sister, who raised Hamza’s son after his death, are also displayed.
In this modest setting, the talent of Hamza, a true defender of the people, poet-democrat, playwright, and composer, flourished.
Museum of Local History
The history of Kokand stretches far into the past. Thousands of years ago, the region was inhabited by indigenous peoples, and by the 10th century, a city had emerged, which in the 19th century became one of the most influential in Central Asia. The Museum of Local History, housed in the Khudoyar Khan Palace, offers comprehensive information about Kokand’s history.
After Kokand was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1876, a Russian garrison was stationed in the Khan’s palace. In 1924, the palace hosted an agricultural exhibition, and a year later, the decision was made to open the local history museum. The palace, which has witnessed numerous historical events, stands as a significant testament to Kokand’s past.
At the museum’s entrance, painted minarets, carved doors, and intricate Ganch patterns on the ceiling provide an impression of Kokand’s rich architectural and decorative traditions. The museum is housed in several palace rooms and is divided into six departments: history, modern history, art, nature, scientific and educational work, and the museum fund.
The exhibition impresses with its wide range of objects, including archaeological finds such as shards, fragments, and stone tools from ancient times, as well as everyday items from the late 19th century, including clothing, weapons, books, and household items documenting life in Kokand.
Special attention is given to exhibits from other countries, including gifts to the Khan from foreign ambassadors. A separate room displays palace furniture, either made by local craftsmen or brought from distant lands.
In the museum’s courtyard stand two cannons from the time of the palace siege by Russian troops.
The museum’s collection includes over 30,000 exhibits, a diversity that is difficult to describe – it must be experienced firsthand.
The museum’s exhibition is continuously expanding, and the museum conducts extensive research. It also organizes exhibitions, seminars, meetings, competitions, and festivals for schoolchildren and students in cooperation with public organizations.
Annually, about 70,000 people visit the Kokand Museum of Local History, including a significant number of international tourists.
Church of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God
In the city of Kokand, there is also an Orthodox church.
The construction of the Church of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God began in 1905 and was completed in 1908 after a construction period of two and a half years. At the beginning of 1908, the crosses were installed on the building, and the consecration took place on June 29 (July 12 according to the Gregorian calendar).
The design of the church was based on the plans of architect Vasiliev and was intended to reflect the stylistic features of 17th-century Russian wooden architecture.
The church could accommodate about 400 parishioners. The funding came from art patrons, the Kokand merchants Polunin and Chabarov, and the church was equipped with electric lighting—a rare luxury for temples in Central Asia at that time. For comparison, only the Annunciation Church in Tashkent also had electric lighting.
The building was adorned with five elongated domes over the central part and an additional dome over the bell tower. The exterior facade was decorated with oriental-style friezes. The two-story iconostasis was made through donations from the Moscow firm Bardygin.
The bells in the bell tower were cast from old cannons. The largest bell, a 300-pound copper bell, was named “General Skobelev.”
In 1937, after the establishment of Soviet power (according to other sources, already in 1934), the church was demolished. In 1945, a new church was erected on the same site.
Bridges
The historical bridges of the city are also of interest.
The Yalangoch-ota Bridge over the Kokand-Sai River, constructed from brick with arched spans, is the subject of a city legend. The name “The Naked Dervish” refers to the money the dervish collected through alms to build the bridge.
A similar story is told about the Charkhna-Kuprik Bridge, whose construction was financed by a simple maiden. The name of this bridge translates as “Bridge of the Maiden.”
The old stone bridge is also notable. It is reported that Umar Khan posed there to admire the architecture.
Buwayda Memorial Complex
North of Kokand lies the Buwayda district, notable for its three preserved two-chamber mausoleums: Podsho-Pirim (Shokhi Jalil), Bibi-Buwayda, and Buston-buva.
In ancient times, a significant route of the Great Silk Road passed here, and the city played a central role in the development of trade and cultural relations in the region.
The Buwayda district is particularly known for its architectural monuments, especially the mausoleums. Archaeological surveys conducted between 2004 and 2012 identified more than ten architectural structures with cultic significance.
The comprehensive description of the mausoleums in the Buwayda district is only partially documented to date.
Among the architecturally described sacred sites are Bibi-Buwayda, Podsho-Pirim (Shokhi Jalil), and Buston-Buva (Sultan Bayazid Bistomi). Bandikushod-ota, Sufi Azizlar, and Galdir-bobo are mentioned in cultic folklore.
There are only brief mentions of Gudak Mazar, Suk Mazar, Chilton Mazar, and Gayib-ota.
Mazar Podsho-Pirim (Mausoleum of Shokhi Jalil)
Mazar Podsho-Pirim (“King Mentor”) is the general name of the cemetery where the Mausoleum of Shokhi Jalil is located. There is a widespread belief that anyone who questions or insults the sanctity of Mazar Podsho-Pirim will inevitably be punished (kargish, teskari fotiҳa, du’o-yi bad). Therefore, Mazar Podsho-Pirim holds a prominent place in the history of the Kokand Khanate.
The oldest parts of the Podsho-Pirim complex date back to the 15th and 16th centuries. The center of this historical complex is the Mausoleum of Shokhi Jalil, a significant preacher of Islam in the Fergana Valley. After the death of the Imam, his tomb was venerated, and later a mausoleum was erected over the grave, after which the cemetery was gradually expanded around the grave.
The complex consists of two courtyards: The first is a horizontally elongated rectangular courtyard with a portal dome (darvozahona) from the 15th century and a frontally opened mosque from the early 20th century. The second courtyard is a polygonal area with graves and a mausoleum from the 15th to 16th centuries.
The mosque is a rectangular building (18 x 8 meters) consisting of a hall and a three-sided Aivan supported by 44 columns. The originally painted flat ceiling is a characteristic feature of religious buildings in the Fergana Valley.
The two-chamber tomb includes a Ziarathona (memorial mosque) and a smaller Gurkhona (grave chamber). The floor plan of the Ziarathona is cross-shaped (5.2 x 5.2 meters), while the Gurkhona is square (4.3 x 4.3 meters) and features deep, recessed pointed arch niches in the wall plane.
The interiors are finished with Ganch and illuminated by pointed arch windows, in which Panjara—decorative lattices with geometric patterns—are preserved. The wooden double doors are adorned with flat carved ornaments. The facades are decorated with clay Samana plaster.
The Mausoleum of Shokhi Jalil
The Mausoleum of Shokhi Jalil features a striking silhouette and pronounced sculptural form language. Shokhi Jalil holds a prominent role in the history of the Kokand Khanate, as his mausoleum served as a crucial site for decision-making regarding the fate of the Khanate. It is documented that Khudoyar Khan was born in this sanctuary on a white felt in 1845.
Bibi-Buwayda Mausoleum
The Buwaida district in the Fergana Valley is the only district named after a woman—the legendary Bibi-Buwayda. Numerous legends surround Bibi-Buwayda and Shokhi Jalil, and the locals maintain rich myths about the feats of Shokhi Jalil.
During a campaign in the Fergana Valley, Podsho-Pirim—Shokhi Jalil, the son of Bibi-Buwayda—was ambushed while crossing the Syr Darya and was severely wounded. According to his will, he was buried in the village of Kora-darakht at the site of Mazar Podsho-Pirim.
Bibi-Buwayda and her daughter Shokhi Jalila traveled to Medina but died near Kokand in the desert. The architectural monument of Bibi-Buwayda is the women’s grave where she is said to be buried according to legend.
Despite the significant distance separating the mausoleums of mother and son, they are aligned on an axis, so one mausoleum is visible from the other. This arrangement is linked by local legend, which states that Bibi-Buwayda loved her son dearly and wished for their graves, wherever they might be, to be “visible to each other.” The architects fulfilled this wish by choosing locations from which each mausoleum is visible from the other.
The Mazar of Bibi-Buwayda is especially revered by the women of Fergana. According to legend, she was one of the first women in the Fergana Valley to convert to Islam. Every year, people come here to honor her memory. Later, a superstition developed that “women who have not visited the Bibi-Buwayda Mausoleum will not receive tasty food” (Bibi Buwaydaga bormagan aelni ovkati shirin bulmaidi).
The Bibi-Buwayda Mausoleum is built from fired bricks and consists of two main rooms with a small annex on the east wall. The portal is adorned with two turrets characteristic of the late 19th century in the Fergana Valley. Both rooms are covered with large domes. The front room served as a Ziarathona, where the sheikhs received visitors.
The mausoleum represents a coherent, compositionally unified architectural ensemble. The main entrance is marked by a portal with fragments of a Revak (arched gallery). The doors are decorated with flat, carved geometric ornaments.
The rectangular building (18 x 8.5 meters) comprises two square rooms—the Ziarathona (memorial mosque) and the Gurkhona (grave chamber)—both covered with domes. Typically, the Ziarathona is larger than the Gurkhona, but in this mausoleum, the opposite is true. On the east side of the Ziarathona is a small chamber where Bibi-Buwayda’s granddaughter is buried. This chamber is covered with a vault that rises from the corners to the center through increasingly larger arches. This type of vault is known as Balkhi.
The mausoleum’s furnishings are modest. The facades are made of simple brickwork, and the interior walls are covered with Ganch. The tombs are characterized by their formal solidity, simplicity, and clarity of architectural idea.
Inside, there are two plain tombstones. The left is attributed to Bibi-Buwayda, and the right is presumably the grave of Sheikh Suleiman. At the entrance to the wall is an irregularly shaped, oval, rolled tombstone—kayrak—measuring approximately 60 x 30 cm. It bears an Arabic inscription that reads: “This is the grave of Sheikh Suleiman bin Dawid bin Suleiman bin Salman, the beauty of Islam and Muslims, the benefactor of kings and sultans, the Khatib of Khatibs, and the pride of scholars. Died in the year 595 AH” (1198-1199 AD). The edges of the inscription are framed by a curved, twisted line.
The south-facing main portal bears the construction date 1318 AH (1899) and the name of the builder, Usta Ibrahim-jan bin Usta Ismail.
Buston-Buwa Mazar
The Mazar Buston-Buwa is located in the eponymous village and is historically linked to the name of Sultan Bayazid Bistomi. Historical sources report that the Kokand Khan Sherali visited this area during his campaigns. According to Islamic sources, the Buston-Buwa Mazar is associated with Khoja Bayazid, a nephew of Ahmad al-Yassawi (died 1167), who was a mentor to Amir Temur.
It is notable that there are several cult sites and names in Central Asia associated with this name.
A monumental portal highlights the east-facing entrance. Cylindrical towers—Guldasta—stand on both sides.
The rectangular building of fired brick (15 x 7.2 meters) includes two domed chambers: a grave with a lance-shaped tombstone—sagana—and a memorial room. The mausoleum is simple, without any decoration.
The residents of Fergana simply refer to the mausoleum as Bastom-baba. From mid-August, people from various districts of Fergana gather here each year to take sand baths. This location is a waterless steppe where Barchane sand dunes move. One of these sand dunes surrounds the building of the Buston-Buwa Mausoleum. The mausoleum is located on the edge of the oasis where the cultivated land ends, with the steppe extending further north and east.
Local historians report that the grave of Buston-Buwa’s brother Shokhi Jalil is buried here and connect the construction of the mausoleum with the name Temur, although no precise historical data on the construction time are available. Based on architectural forms, structures, and materials, the mausoleum can be dated to the 15th to 16th century.
Mehrigiyo Farm Garden
The Fergana Valley is one of the most picturesque and fertile regions of Uzbekistan. For many years, it has been home to one of the largest and most unique pharmaceutical companies in Uzbekistan, specializing in herbal preparations.
The company “Mehrigiyo” was founded in 1992. It brought together leading specialists in phytotherapy and alternative medicine to develop innovative products and achieve significant progress in domestic pharmaceuticals.
In a short time, the company’s herbal products gained the trust of consumers not only in Uzbekistan but also internationally.
Anyone interested in seeing how lavender grows in Uzbekistan or having breakfast in a poppy field should visit the Mehrigiyo plantations in the Fergana Valley.
