Turkmenistan as Part of the Soviet Union: A Historical Analysis of Political, Socioeconomic, and Cultural Developments Leading to Independence in 1991
The historical development of Turkmenistan as part of the Soviet Union is deeply rooted in the political upheavals and social changes of the 20th century. The influence of the Russian Bolsheviks on workers in Turkmen cities laid the groundwork for the idea of founding the Soviet Union and establishing Turkmenistan as an integral part of this union. This focus brought the formation of an international democratic cooperative Transcaspian provisional government on Turkmen territory to the forefront, appealing for assistance from Great Britain during this phase.
In 1920, the Red Army occupied Krasnovodsk, marking a crucial step towards Soviet control over the region. On August 7, 1921, the majority of Turkmen territory was officially established as the Turkmenistan Region, part of the Turkmen ASSR. This development culminated on October 27, 1924, in the creation of the Turkmen Socialist Soviet Republic through the national and state demarcation of Central Asia from areas inhabited by Turkmen. This historic turning point marked the first establishment of a united Turkmen state in the history of this people. The final integration occurred on May 12, 1925, when the Turkmen SSR was directly incorporated into the USSR.
The 1920s-1930s witnessed comprehensive reforms in Turkmenistan as part of the Soviet Union, mirroring actions taken in other Soviet republics, including collectivization, industrialization, alphabetization, and secularization (with the closure of over 500 mosques). These changes had profound effects on society, particularly on the nomadic lifestyle of the Turkmen people, who still constituted at least 30 percent of the Republic’s population in 1930. Social upheavals resulted in periodic uprisings against Soviet rule in the southern and western regions of Turkmenistan.
Irrigation agriculture was also a focal point of dissatisfaction, with any manifestation of discontent categorized as anti-Soviet activity and brutally suppressed. The armed struggle against the Basmachi, a movement opposing Soviet rule, and the inclusion of the poorest population into Soviet and party bodies played a crucial role in swiftly suppressing active and passive resistance to the reforms of the 1920s-1930s.
A pivotal factor in this development was the support of the principle of equality for all citizens by the new government. In contrast to the previous Tsarist regime, the Soviet leadership advocated for an egalitarian society irrespective of national or tribal affiliations. To support this transformation, party and Soviet cadres, as well as specialists such as doctors, teachers, engineers, were intentionally sent to the Turkmen SSR from the European part of the USSR. These measures contributed to advancing the social and cultural transformation in Turkmenistan, aligning the population with the ideals of Soviet leadership.
During World War II, the Turkmen SSR played a crucial role in supporting Soviet military units in Northern Iran. This strategic support involved mobilizing tens of thousands of inhabitants of the Republic for frontline duty, highlighting the close connection and cooperation between Turkmenistan and the Soviet Union during times of international conflict.
In October 1948, a tragic event unfolded as a catastrophic earthquake destroyed Ashgabat, the capital of the Turkmen SSR. Official reports cited 30,000 casualties, but unofficial estimates suggest a much higher toll, exceeding 100,000 individuals. This devastating event prompted intense collaboration between the Soviet republics, working collectively to address the aftermath of this natural disaster.
Positive trends within the Soviet system were observed in Turkmenistan as part of the Soviet Union during the socio-economic and cultural development of the region from the 1950s to the 1970s. This period witnessed economic growth, infrastructure development, and cultural advancements. The independence movement in Turkmenistan during the late Perestroika period showed less intensity and radicalism compared to other Central Asian republics. At first, the movement emphasized a cultural and environmental orientation, leading to the establishment of the “Agzybirlik” movement in 1989 by representatives of the intelligentsia, which initially did not have a pronounced anti-Soviet alignment.
In March 1985, Saparmurat Atamuratovich Niyazov was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Turkmen SSR. In December of the same year, Niyazov became the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Republican Communist Party. In January 1990, Niyazov was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Republic, and in October of the same year (as a result of non-alternative elections), he became its president. In March 1991, the Republic’s population voted in a referendum in favor of preserving the USSR.
Initially, Niyazov supported the actions of the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP), but after its failure, the process of the Republic’s sovereignty accelerated. In 1990, the Republican Supreme Soviet, on Niyazov’s initiative, adopted a declaration of Turkmenistan’s “state independence.” In a referendum in October 1991, the vast majority of the population (94 percent) voted for independence, paving the way for the emergence of a sovereign Republic of Turkmenistan. This historic moment underscores the development of Turkmenistan as part of the Soviet Union and the transition into the era of independence.
